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1、BARRIERSTOENTRYDECOMPOSINGTHEGENDERGAPINJOBSEARCHINURBANPAKISTANElisabettaGentile7NikitoKohli,NivedhithaSubramanian,ZuniaTirmazee,andKateVybornyNO. 707December 2023AdbeconomicsWORKINGPAPERSERIESADBEconomicsWorkingPaperSeriesBarrierstoEntry:DecomposingtheGenderGapinJobSearchinUrbanPakistanElisabetta
2、Gentile, Nikita Kohli, NivedhithaSubramanian, Zunia Tirmazee1 and Kate VybornyNo. 707 I December 2023The ADB Economics Working Paper Series presents research in progress to elicit comments and encourage debate on development issues in Asia and the Pacific. The views expressed are those of the author
3、s and do not necessarily reflect the views and policies of ADB or its Board of Governors or the governments they represent.Elisabetta Gentile (egentileadb.org) is a senior economist at the South Asia Department, Asian Development Bank. Nikita Kohli (nikita.kohli() duke.edu) is a PhD student and Kate
4、 Vyborny (katherine.vybornyduke.edu) is associate director ofthe DeVLabDUke and a research associate at the Department of Economics, Duke University. Nivedhitha Subramanian (nsubramabates.edu) is an assistant professor at Bates College. Zunia Tirmazee (zuniatirmazee) is an assistant professor at Lah
5、ore School of Economics.ICreativeCommonsAttribution3.0IGOlicense(CCBY3.0IGO)2023AsianDevelopmentBank6ADBAvenue,MandaluyongCity,1550MetroManila,PhilippinesTel+63286324444;Fax+63286362444Somerightsreserved.Publishedin2023.ISSN2313-6537(print),2313-6545(electronic)PublicationStockNo.WPS230551-2DOI:Thev
6、iewsexpressedinthispublicationarethoseoftheauthorsanddonotnecessarilyreflecttheviewsandpoliciesoftheAsianDevelopmentBank(ADB)oritsBoardofGovernorsorthegovernmentstheyrepresent.ADBdoesnotguaranteetheaccuracyofthedataincludedinthispublicationandacceptsnoresponsibilityforanyconsequenceoftheiruse.Themen
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9、tps:/www.adb.org/terms-use#openaccess.ThisCChtmaterialsintispublication.Ifthematerialisattributedtoanothersource,pleasentactthecopyrightownerorpublisherofthatsourceforpermissiontoreproduceit.ADBcannotbeheldliableforanyclaimsthatariseasaresultofyouruseofthematerial.Pleasentactpbsmarketing(g)adb.orgif
10、youhavequestionsorcommentswithrespecttoComenLorifyouwishtoobtaincopyrightpermissionforyourintendedusethatdoesnotfallwithintheseterms,orforpermissiontousetheADBlogo.CorrigendatoADBpublicationsmaybefoundatNote:Inthispublication,*PRsreferstoPakistanrupeesande$referstoUnitedStatesdollars.ADBrecognizesCh
11、inaasthePeoplesRepublicofChina.ABSTRACTGendergapsinlabormarketoutcomespersistinSouthAsia.Anopenquestioniswhethersupplyordemandsideconstraintsplayalargerrole.WeinvestigatethisusingmatcheddatafromthreesourcesinLahore,Pakistan:representativesamplesofjobseekersandemployers;administrativedatafromajobmatc
12、hingplatform;andanincentivizedresumeratingexperiment.Employers1genderrestrictionsarealargerconstraintonwomen,sjobopportunitiesthansupply-sidedecisions.Athigherlevelsofeducation,demand-sidebarriersrelax,allowingwomentoqualifyformorejobsbutatlowersalaries.Onthesupplyside,educatedwomenbecomemoreselecti
13、veintheirsearch.Keywords:gender,discrimination,jobsearch,jobsplatform,vacancies,applicationsJELcodes:J16,J22,J23,R23Wearegratefulforvaluablefeedbackfromseminar,conference,andworkshopparticipantsattheAsianDevelopmentBank,DukeUniversity,theDiversityandHumanCapitalWorkshopatExeter,theEuropeanEconomicAs
14、sociation,theIZAMatchingWorkersandJobsOnlineWorkshop,theLACDevConference,theADEConferenceattheLahoreSchoolofEconomics,theNorthEastUniversitiesDevelopmentConsortiumConference,theMaineEconomicsConference,theYaIe-ADBIGender-SensitiveEconomicRecoveryConference,andtheYaleEGCworkshop.WethankLiviaAlfonsi,E
15、milyConover,RohiniPande,DanilaSerra,andNiharikaSinghforcomments.WethanktheentireJobTalashteamatCERPandDukeforexcellentresearchassistanceandprogrammaticsupport.WethankEricaFieldandRobGarlickforhelpfulcommentsonthedraftandcollaborationonthebroaderJobTalashprogramofresearch.Wegratefullyacknowledgefundi
16、ngforthisprojectfromADB1andforthebroaderJobTalashresearchprogramfromtheGLM-LIC13IE,IGC,J-PAL1PEDL,andtheNationalScienceFoundation(SES1629317).ThisresearchreceivedethicsapprovalfromDukeUniversity(2019-0067).Previouslypresentedas,ALeakyPipeline:DecomposingthegendergapinjobsearchinurbanPakistan/1 Intro
17、ductionVastgendergapsinemployment,stemmingfromlowlevelsofwomensemployment,persistinmanylow-andmiddle-incomeeconomies,particularlyinSouthAsia,theMiddleEast,andNorthAfrica(Addatietal.,2016).Agrowingliteraturedocumentsthatsupplysidefactorssuchasself-selectingintooccupationsthatconformtogenderidentity,d
18、ifferingpreferencesforjobattributes,andgenderedsocialnormsabouttimeuseconstrainwomenslaborsupplyinthesecontexts.(AkerlofandKranton,2000;CortesandPan,2017;Delfino,2022;DeanandJayachandran,2019;Subramanian,2021;MasandPallais52017;Fletcheretal.12018).However,demand-sideratherthansupply-sidefactorsmight
19、formthebindingconstrainttowomenslaborforalargerfractionofthepopulationincontextswithlowfemalelaborforceparticipation(FLFP).Indeed,asmallerbodyofworkdemonstratesthatdemand-sidefactorssuchasfirmgenderpreferencescancontributetogendergapsinemployment(KuhnandShen,2013;GoldinandRouse,2000;Hangartneretal.t
20、2021;Ozenetal.i2019).Despitethewealthofresearchonlowfemaleemployment,wehavelimitedevidencequantifyingtherelativesizeofdemandandsupplyfactorsthatgiverisetothisphenomenon.Inaddition,muchoftheexistingevidencefocusesonspecificpopulations(e.g.educatedwomen)orsectors(e.g.governmentwork).Knowingwhethersupp
21、lyordemandconstraintsarebindinginthebroaderlabormarketisimportanttotargetpolicytoeithersupply-sideinterventions,suchasprovisionoffinancialservicestowomenorexposuretofemalerolemodels(Fieldetal.;Ahmedetal.,forthcoming),ortodemand-sideinterventionssuchaseliminatinggendercriteriainjobads,hiringquotas,wa
22、gesubsidies,physicalinfrastructuresuchaswomen,stoilets,oremployer-basedchildcare(Cardetal.,2021;Milleretal.,2022;KuhnandShen,2023).WeaddressthisgapintheliteraturebycombiningdatafromajobsearchplatformandincentivizedresumeratingexperimentfromLahore,Pakistan,toquantifytherelativeimportanceofdemand-side
23、andsupply-sidesourcesofthegendergap.Wedocumentthatatloweducationlevelsdemand-sideconstraintsaremuchlargerthansupply-sidefactors,butthisdemand-sidegapinquantityofjobopportunitiesclosesaseducationlevelsincreaseandjobsbecomemore,lwhite-collar.Ourempiricalapproachusesanovelcombinationofmatcheddatafromre
24、presentativesurveys,administrativedataonjobsearch,andexperimentaldatatoovercomefourkeychallengestoquantifyingthesizeofdemandandsupplysidefactorscontributingtothethegendergapinthelabormarket.Thefirstempiricalchallengeisthatsurveydatafromrepresentativesamplesofhouseholdsorfirmscanbeusedtoquantifythere
25、alizedgendergapinequilibrium,butdonotallowtheanalysttodecomposehowmuchofthisgapcomesfrommen,sandwomenswillingnesstosupplylaborversusfirms*demandformaleandfemalelabor.Second,alternativedatasourcessuchasjobplatformdataallowresearcherstoobservethedetailsofsearchactivitybyjobseekersandfirms;however,such
26、dataoftenhavelimitations(Nomuraetal.,2017).Theytypicallydonotallowtheresearchertoobservejobseekerpreferencesdirectly,onlytoinferthemfromapplicationchoices,whicharealsoinfluencedbyotherfactorssuchasthevacanciesavailableontheplatform.Similarly,theytypicallydonotallowtheresearchertoobserveawell-defined
27、choicesetofvacanciesobservedbythejobseeker,makingitdifficulttodisentanglewhetherthedecisiontoapplytoagivenvacancyisafunctionofthecharacteristicsofthatvacancyorofsearcheffortinbrowsingtheplatform(e.g.Belotetal.(2018);Wheeleretal.(2021);JonesandSen(2022);Banfietal.(2019);Matsudaetal.(2019),Third,selec
28、tionofbothfirmsandworkersintosearchandtheuseofjobsearchplatformslimitstheextenttowhichresultscanbeextrapolatedtothepopulationasawhole(Kurekovaetal.,2015).Addressingthesefirstthreechallenges,ourresearchpartnersattheCentreforEconomicResearchinPakistandevelopedanewjobmatchingplatform,JobTalash,andoffer
29、editasafreeservicetorepresentativelistingsofthousandsofhouseholdsandthousandsoffirmsinasingleurbanlabormarket.Weemphasizetheimportanceofstudyingtheformergroup,economicallyinactivelatentworkers/*whomightbeinterestedinworkingbutareeconomicallyinactiveduetolackofopportunities,whorepresentthepopulationw
30、iththelargestpotentialbenefitfromreductionsinlabormarketbarriers.ThisgroupisparticularlyimportantforunderstandinggenderdifferencesinsettingssuchasPakistan,wheresurveydatasuggestthatahighfractionofthefemalepopulationarelatentworkers.FemalelaborforceparticipationinPakistanwas21%in2020comparedtoamalela
31、borforceparticipationrateof78%(InternationalLabourOrganization,2019a,b);however,aquarterofwomenarenotworkingbutreporttheywouldliketoworkiftheycouldfindasuitablejob(FieldandVyborny,2016).Theresearchdesigninvolveddevelopment,piloting,andrefinementofahigh-frequencyjobmatchingservicethatlistsjobsanddeli
32、versinformationtorespondentsaboutthemthroughtextmessageandacallcenter.JobTalashallowsustopreciselyobserveeachstepofjobsearchactivityonthesupplyanddemandside(FieldandVybornyj2022;Subramanian,2021;Fieldetal.,2023).Theplatformworksbymatchingeachjobseekertoopenvacanciesbasedonwhethertheysatisfyminimalcr
33、iteriasetbythefirmforthevacancy,andoccupationalpreferencessetbythejobseeker.Theplatformsendsinformationtothejobseekeraboutallthevacanciesthatmeetallcriteria(werefertosuchapairingthatsatisfiesallcriteriaasa“match)，andthejobseekercandecidewhethertoapplytoeachone.Thus,theplatformgenerateshigh-frequency
34、,detaileddataonboththesupplyanddemandsidesofthelabormarketformillionsofpotentialjobmatchesbetweenfirmandrespondent.Theplatformdoesnothaveasearchfunction,whichmeansthatweobservethefullsetofvacanciesthatthejobseekersees,andthefullsetofcandidatessenttothefirm.Becauseweprovideinformationtobothsides,weob
35、serveexactlythesameinformationasbothsidesofthemarketuptothepointofaninterview.Therepresentativerecruitmentofbothjobseekersandfirms(rareintheliterature(Kurekovaetal.,2015)andtherichadministrativedataobservedontheplatformprovideusuniqueleveragetohelppinpointthesupply-sideversusdemand-sideconstraintsto
36、women,sversusmensjobsearch.Thefourthchallengeinquantifyingsupplyversusdemandsideconstraintsisthateveniftheinitialsampleofjobseekersandfirmsisrepresentative,whenobservingdownstreamoutcomesinthejobsearchprocesssuchasinterviewsandhires,selectionproblemsariseagain,becausemaleandfemalecandidateswhochoose
37、toapplyforagivenvacancymaydiffersystematicallyfromeachotherandfromnon-applicants.Toaddressthischallenge,wecombinetheadministrativedatawithanincentivizedresumerating(IRR)experimentwhichweconductedwithfirmsintheJobTalashsample(Kessleretal.,2019).Weshowemployersontheplatformaseriesofpairsofcurriculumvi
38、tae(CV)andineachpairasktherespondenttoselecttheonethattheywouldbemostlikelytohire,withtheincentivethatthiscouldhelpinformtheapplicantpoolsenttothemthroughtheJobTaIashplatform.CVsforthisexercisewereconstructedusingtheactualjobapplicantdatafromtheJobTalashpool,makingthemarealisticrepresentationoftheca
39、ndidatesthefirmmightseeontheplatform;werandomlyvariedthegenderoftheapplicantontheCVtoidentifyfirmpreferencesovergender,holdingconstantpotentialConfounderssuchasdifferencesinlevelsofeducationandexperiencebetweenmenandwomeninthepool,anddifferentialselectionintoapplication.Ourfirstkeyfindingisthatgende
40、rgapsinemploymentaregreaterinmagnitudethangendergapsinsearch.ThiscomplementstheliteratureshowingthatwomenslaborsupplyiselastictotheintroductionofgoodjobsevenintheSouthAsiancontext,whereoverallfemaleemploymentratesarelow(Jensen,2012;HeathandMobarak,2015).Womenare89%lesslikelythanmentobeworkingatbasel
41、ine;however,theyareonly53%lesslikelytocompletesign-upfortheJobTalashplatform,aninvestmentoftimeinthetelephonebasedsign-upprocesswhichindicateswillingnesstosearch.Thegendergapinbothworkandwillingnesstosearchnarrowsaseducationlevelsrise.Athighereducationlevels,thegendergapincompletingthesignupprocessf
42、allsby65%.Thesefindingssuggestthatmanywomen,particularlyeducatedwomen,arelatentworkers*pointingtokeyconstraintsonthelabordemandside.Oursecondkeyfindingisthatforlesseducatedjobseekers,firmgendercriteria,anentirelydemand-sideconstraint,aremorebindingforwomenthanmen,andarealsoalargerconstraintthansuppl
43、y-sidedecisions.Womeninoursettingare53%lesslikelythanmentosatisfytheexplicitgenderrequirementsforanygivenvacancy.Thesepatternspersistevenwhenwerestricttovacancieswheretheindividualmettheeducationandexperiencecriteria,andexpressedinterestintheoccupation:demand-sidecriteriaarethebindingconstraintonopp
44、ortunitiesavailabletowomen.Infact,inthesetofvacancieswhereindividualssatisfiedallbasiccriteriaandwereeligibletoapply,womenapplyatahigherratethanmen,overall.Ourthirdkeyfindingisthatthedemandsidegapinquantityofjobopportunitiessubstantiallyclosesaseducationlevelsrise,whileonthesupplysidewomenbecomemore
45、selective.Thegendergapinsatisfyingthegendercriteriaforapositionshrinksby70%fortheminorityofwomenwithsecondaryeducationandeffectivelydisappearsforthethirdofwomenwithatertiaryeducation.WedocumentthisthroughboththeadministrativedataandtheIRRexperiment.Wefindthatfirms*gendercriteriaandtheeducationalrequ
46、irementsofthejobaremirrored;vacancieswith,4bluecollar*1characteristicssuchasmanuallaborandlongerandlateworkhoursaremorelikelytoexcludewomenandmorecommonamongjobswithloweducationrequirements,evenconditionalonindustryandoccupationfixedeffects.Additionally,firmsgendercriteriaandtheeducationleveltheysee
47、ktohirereflectexistinginfrastructureatthefirm:firmsthathaverestroomsoraseparateprayerspaceforwomenarebothmorelikelytobewillingtohirewomenandmorelikelytobehiringatahigheducationlevel.Thisconnectstoabroaderliteraturepointingtotheroleofon-wagecharacteristicsoffirmsandvacanciesingendergapsinthelabormark
48、et(MasandPallais,2017;Floryetal.,2015;FieldandVyborny,2022;GoldinandKatz,2016;ChiplunkarandGoldberg,2021;Milleretal.,2022).Strikingly,amongthosewithatertiaryeducation,womenaremoreselectivethanmenintheirjobsearch.Atthishigheducationlevel,womenareslightlylesslikelythanmentohaveselectedtheoccupationofa
49、givenvacancy,andareslightlylesslikelytoapplytoavacancy.Butthisislikelydrivenbydifferencesinthequalityofvacanciesbygender;indeed,wefindthatamongthosewithatertiaryeducation,womenaremorelikelythanmentoqualifyforthevacanciesatthelowestquintileofthesalarydistribution.Weadvancetheliteratureintwokeyways.First,ournovelcombinationofmatcheddataallowustoseparatelyquantifytheroleofdemandandsupplysidedecisionsinthegendergapinjobopportunities.Sec
