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1、IntemotionolRenewablej.,-.燹IRENAWaterforhydrogen2productionOIRENA2023Unlessotherwisestated,materialintispublicationmaybefreelyused,shared,pied,reproduced,printedand/orstored,providedthatappropriateacknowledgementisgivenofIRENAasthesourceandcopyrightholder.Materialinthispublicationthatisattributedtot
2、hirdpartiesmaybesubjecttoseparatetermsofuseandrestrictions,andappropriatepermissionsfromthesethirdpartiesmayneedtobesecuredbeforeanyuseofsuchmaterial.ISBN：978-92-9260-526-1citation：IRENAandBluerisk(2023),Waterforhydrogenproduction,InternationalRenewableEnergyAgency,Bluerisk,AbuDhabi,UnitedArabEmirat
3、es.ABOUTIRENATheInternationalRenewableEnergyAgency(IRENA)isanintergovernmentalorganisationthatsupportscountriesintheirtransitiontoasustainableenergyfutureandservesastheprincipalplatformforinternationalco-operation,acentreofexcellence,andarepositoryofpolicy,technology,resourceandfinancialknowledgeonr
4、enewableenergy.IRENApromotesthewidespreadadoptionandsustainableuseofallformsofrenewableenergy,includingbioenergyzgeothermal,hydropower,ocean,solarandwindenergy,inthepursuitofsustainabledevelopment,energyaccess,energysecurityandlow-carboneconomicgrowthandprosperity.www.irena.orgABOUTBLUERISKBlueriski
5、sawaterstrategyanddataanalyticsconsultancyfocusedonenhancingresilienceandreducingriskinthefaceofemergingwaterchallenges.BluerkkACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThereportwasdevelopedundertheguidanceofUteCollieracting-Director,IRENAKnowledgePolicyandFinanceCentreandauthoredbyEmanueleBianco(IRENA),TianyiLuo(Bluerisk),a
6、ndDivyamNagpal(ex-IRENA).IRENAcolleaguesAnn-KatbrinLipponer,LuisJaneiroandFranciscoBoshellprovidedvaluableinput.AnetaCornell(EcoIab),LorenzoRosa(StanfordUniversity),ChaoZhangandYinshuangXia(TongjiUniversity),providedtechnicalcontributionstothereport.MarinaMelnikovaandYuryMelnikov(Mytonastars)provide
7、dusefulcontributionsandobservations.Thereportbenefitedfromthereviewsandcommentsofexperts,includingAlistairWyness,RachaelRaid(BP)zNitinBassi(CEEW),YuZhang,ZiyanSha(ChinaHydrogenEnergyIndustryPromotionAssociation),CristianCarraretto,RobertoGonzales(EBRD),AnetaCornell,EmilioTenuta(EcoIab),MassimoSantar
8、elli(PolytechnicUniversityofTurin),AlejandroLongueira(RolandBerger)andSmeetaFokeer(UNIDO).PublicationsupportwasprovidedbyFrancisFieldandStephanieClarke(IRENA).ThereportwaseditedbyFayreMakeig,withdesignprovidedbyElkanodata.Forfurtherinformationortoprovidefeedback:publicationsirena.orgDISCLAIMERThispu
9、blicationandthematerialhereinareprovideduasisw.AllreasonableprecautionshavebeentakenbyIRENAtoverifythereliabilityofthematerialinthispublication.However,neitherIRENAnoranyofitsofficials,agents,dataorotherthird-partycontentprovidersprovidesawarrantyofanykind,eitherexpressedorimplied,andtheyacceptnores
10、ponsibilityorliabilityforanynsequenceofuseofthepublicationormaterialherein.TheinformationcontainedhereindoesnotnecessarilyrepresenttheviewsofallMembersofIRENA.ThementionofspecificcompaniesorcertainprojectsorproductsdoesnotimplythattheyareendorsedorrecommendedbyIRENAinpreferencetoothersofasimilarnatu
11、rethatarenotmentioned.ThedesignationsemployedandtepresentationofmaterialhereindonotimplytheexpressionofanyopiniononthepartofIRENAconcerningthelegalstatusofanyregion,country,territory,cityorareaorofitsauthorities,orncerningthedelimitationoffrontiersorboundaries.TableofcontentsGlossary5Executivesummar
12、y6Chapter 1Introductiontothehydrogen-waternexus14Chapter 2Areviewofwaterquantityrequirementsincommercial-scalehydrogenproduction21Chapter 3Waterfootprintandrisksofglobalhydrogenproduction32Chapter 4Deep-diveanalysesofnorthernChina,theGulfandEurope42Chapter 5ConclusionsandRecommendations54References5
13、9Appendix63FiguresFigureSlAcomparisonofaveragewaterwithdrawalandconsumptionintensitiesbyhydrogenproductiontechnologyFigureS2Currentandprojectedfreshwaterwithdrawalforglobalhydrogenproduction,bypathwayFigure2.1Schematicsofprocess-specificwaterwithdrawalandnsumptioninlitresfortypicalhydrogentechnologi
14、estogenerate1kilogrammeofhydrogenFigure2.2ShareofthewaterwithdrawalneedsofproductionandcoolingintheoverallwaterdemandofhydrogenproductionexamplesFigure2.3AcomparisonofaveragewaterwithdrawalandconsumptionintensitiesbyhydrogenproductiontechnologyFigure2.4Relationsbetweenhydrogenconversionefficiencyand
15、waterwithdrawalandconsumptionintensitiesofatypicalelectrolysisprojectFigure2.5Annualwaterwithdrawaloftypicalhydrogenproductionprojects,thermalpowerplantsandmunicipalitiesFigure3.1Currentandprojectedfutureglobalhydrogenproductionunderthe1.50CScenarioFigure3.2Currentandprojectedfreshwaterwithdrawalfor
16、globalhydrogenproduction,bypathwayFigure 3.3Figure 3.4Freshwaterforhydrogenproductionandclingztodayto2050Globalwaterstressconditionsandgreenandbluehydrogenprojectlocationsfor2040Figure3.5Distributionofglobaloperationalandplannedgreenandbluehydrogenproductioncapacitiesbywaterstresslevel,todayandin204
17、0Figure3.6Distributionofglobaloperationalandplannedgreenandbluehydrogenproductioncapacitiesbywaterstresslevelandregionin2040Figure4.1Hydrogen-producingcoalchemicalplantsandlevelsofwaterstressintheYellowRiverBasinFigure4.2Annualwaterwithdrawalandconsumptionduetocoal-basedhydrogenproductionintheYellow
18、RiverBasin,byprovinceFigure4.3Distributionofhydrogen-producingcoalchemicalplantsintheYellowRiverBasinbycurrentwaterstresslevel44Figure4.4Annualwaterwithdrawalandnsumptionrequirementsofcoal-basedhydrogenproductionintheYellowRiverBasinunderfourscenarios45Figure4.5HydrogenplantsintheGulfCooperationCoun
19、ciluntriesandtheregion,scurrentwaterstressconditions46Figure4.6CurrentandprojectedfuturehydrogenproductionoftheGulfCperationCouncilcountries47Figure4.7CurrentandprojectedseawaterwithdrawalsanddesalinatedseawaterrequirementsofhydrogenproductionintheGulfCperationCouncilcountries48Figure4.8Anoverviewof
20、hydrogenprojectsinEurope49Figure4.9AmapofwaterstressandoperationalandplannedhydrogenprojectsbyproductiontechnologyinEurope50Figure4.10ThedistributionofEuropesoperationalandplannedhydrogenprojectsbywaterstresslevelsin204051Figure4.11CurrentandprojectedhydrogenproductioninEurope52Figure4.12Currentandp
21、rojectedfuturefreshwaterwithdrawalandconsumptionrequirementsofhydrogenproductioninEurope53TablesTable2.1Asummaryofwaterwithdrawalandconsumptionintensitiesbyhydrogenproductiontechnology29Table3.1Currentandprojectedfreshwaterwithdrawalandconsumptionforhydrogenproduction(billioncubicmetres),todayto2050
22、37TableAlWaterwithdrawalandconsumptionintensitydatasources63BoxesBox3.1HydrogenintheWorldEnergyTransitionsOutlook32Box3.2Whatiswaterstress?39AbbreviationsAEMATRCCSanionexchangemembraneauto-thermalreformingcarboncaptureandstorageCCUScarboncapture,utilisationandstorageGCCGulfCperationCouncilGHGgreenho
23、usegasesH2PEMhydrogenprotonexchangemembranePVSDGSMRSOECphotovoltaicSustainableDevelopmentGoalssteammethanereformingsolidoxideelectrolysercellsUnitsofmeasureGWkggigawattkilogramktkilotonneLm3litrecubicmetreMtmegatonneGlossaryBlowdownwater：Waterdrainedintentionallyfromcoolingsystemstopreventmineralbui
24、ld-up.Cycleofconcentration：Ameasureofthebuild-upOfdissolvedmineralsinclingsystems.Thecycleiscalculatedbycomparingtheconcentrationofaparticulardissolvedsolidinthewatercomingoutofacoolingsystemtoitsconcentrationinthewaterflowingintothesystem.Deionisedwater：Atypeofhighlypurifiedwaterthatdoesnotcontaina
25、nyatoms,ionsormolecules.Deionisationremovesdissolvedsubstanceslikesodiumchloride,minerals,carbondioxide,organicpollutantsandvariousothercontaminantsfromwater.Makeupwater：Thewateraddedbackintoacoolingsystemtoreplacewaterlostduetoevaporation,leaks,etc.Permeaterate：Inmembrane-basedwatertreatmentsystems
26、,theratioofthevolumeofwaterpassingthroughthemembranetothetotalquantityofrawwater.Waterwithdrawal：Measuredbythequantityofwaterwithdrawnfromasource(e.g.river,Iakezgroundwater)foruse.Waterwithdrawal/consumptionintensity:Thequantityofwaterwithdrawnfororconsumedinthegenerationofaunitofaproduct(e.g.amegaw
27、atthourofenergy,amegatonneofhydrogen).Waterconsumption：Theportionofwithdrawnwaterthatisnotreturnedtothesource.Waterstress：Measuredusingtheratioofthetotalwaterwithdrawaltotheavailablerenewablefreshwatersupply.Itshouldbecalculatedatawatershedscale.Waterstressposessignificantriskstohumanandenvironmenta
28、lwell-beingandisaproxyforwatercompetitionamongsectorsanduses.ExecutivesummaryTheenergysectoristhelargestwateruserofallindustrialsectors.Waterisrequiredinmanyofitsprocesses,fromfuelextractiontoelectricitygeneration.AsseenintherecentnuclearpowerplantshutdownsinEuropein2022zwatershortagescansignificant
29、lydisruptthesector.Andthedisruptionsarelikelytocontinueandtobecomeevenmorefrequent,especiallyasextremeweathereventsintensifyamidachangingclimate.Toaddresstherisingclimaterisks,theenergysectorisalreadyestablishinggoodpracticesforintegratingwaterconsiderationsintoplanning.Thesectorcanmitigateitswaterr
30、isksbytransitioningtorenewableenergysources,whichconsumelesswaterthantraditionalfossilfuels.Cleanhydrogenhasemergedasaviablealternativeinthefightagainstclimatechange.Hydrogenisagamechanger,especiallyforhardtoabate”,suchassteelmaking,chemicalproduction,aviationzshippingandtrucktransport.Assessingthew
31、ateruseimplicationsofhydrogenproduction,especiallyinwater-stressedareas,isessentialinmanagingpotentialdisruptionstoproduction.Allhydrogenproductiontechnologiesrequirewaterasaninput.Waterisneedednotonlyinproductionbutalsoforcooling.Thewithdrawalandconsumptionofwaterforcleanhydrogenproductionhavebeend
32、ebated,yettoooftenthediscussionsarenotinformedbyin-depthknowledgeofthesestill-nascenttechnologies.Thisreport,mpiledbytheInternationalRenewableEnergyAgency(IRENA)andBlueriskzseekstoanswersomeofthesequestions.Howmuchwaterdoesahydrogenplantactuallyconsume?Thisreportreviewsthewaterwithdrawalandconsumpti
33、onrequirementsofvarioushydrogenproductiontechnologiesindetail.Datahavebeensourcedfrominterviewswithindustryexpertsandareviewofexistingliterature,sheddinglightonthewaterimplicationsofscalingupcleanhydrogenproduction.AveragewaterwithdrawalandconsumptionintensityandrangesarevisualisedinFigureSI.Greenhy
34、drogenisthemostwaterefficientofallcleanhydrogentypes.Itisfoundthat011average,protonexchangemembrane(PEM)electrolysishasthelowestwaterconsumptionintensityatabout17.5litresperkilogrammeofhydrogen(Lkg).AlkalineelectrolysisfollowsPEMelectrolysis,withawaternsumptionintensityof22.3Lkg.Thesemaybecomparedwi
35、thsteammethanereforming-carboncapture,utilisationandstorage(SMR-CCUS)zat32.2Lkgzandautothermalreforming(ATR)-CCUSat24.2Lkg.figureSiAcomparisonofaveragewaterwithdrawalandconsumptionintensitiesbyhydrogenproductiontechnologyWithdrawalConsumptionNote：Tapwater(orsourceswithsimilarwaterquality)is(are)used
36、orassumedtobetewatersource(s)behindthesedatapoints.Forbluehydrogen,thecoolingrequirementsforCCUSsystemsareincluded.ForPEMandATR,availabledatapointsarelimitedsincethesetechnologiesarerelativelynew-thusthemuchsmallerrangesofvalues.ATR=autothermalreforming;CCUS=carboncapture,utilisationandstorage;kg=ki
37、logramme;L=litre;PEM=protonexchangemembrane;SMR=steammethanereforming.Coalgasificationisbyfarthemostwaterintensiveofavailabletechnologies;itwouldbeabout60%moreintensiveifequippedwithCCUS.Coalgasificationhasawaterwithdrawalrequirementofabout50L/kgandconsumes31Lkgzonaverage-roughlytwicePEM,swaterwithd
38、rawalandconsumptionrequirements.EquippedwithCCUSzcoalgasificationswithdrawalaswellasconsumptionrequirementscouldfurtherincreaseto80.2and49.4Lkgzrespectively.Acoalgasificationhydrogenplantproducing237kilotonnes(kt)ofhydrogenperyearandequippedwithCCUSwouldwithdrawabout19millioncubicmetres(m3)ofwateran
39、nually;thisvolumeofwatercouldsupporthalfthewaterdemandofthecityofLondonforanentireyear.Waterisrequiredasaninputforproductionandasacoolingmediumforalltypesofhydrogenproduction.Dependingonthetechnology,theshareofwithdrawalforcoolingcanrangefrom14%to92%.Theshareofwaterwithdrawalforcoolingisthelowestfor
40、greyhydrogenproduction,atabout14%.Greenandbrownhydrogenssharesare56%and52%zrespectively.BluehydrogenproductionrequiresmorewaterforclingzduetothesignificantwaterrequirementsofCCUSsystemsforheattransfer.Coolingcanaccountforupto92%ofthetotalwithdrawalrequirementofbluehydrogen,accordingtodatafromtheNati
41、onalEnergyTechnologyLaboratoryintheUnitedStates.However,moreevidenceisneededbeforeageneralproduction-clingratiocanbedeterminedwithoutdispute.Forevery1percentagepointincreaseinelectrolysisefficiency,thewaterwithdrawalaswellasconsumptionrequirementsofgreenhydrogenproductionlessenbyabout2%.Thisisprimar
42、ilybecause,forthesametypeofhydrogenproductiontechnology,themoreenergyefficientthesystemiszthelesswasteheatneedstobetransferred;thismeanslesswaterisrequiredforcling.Whatwillbetheglobalimpactofcleanhydrogen?Thisreportpresentsacomprehensiveanalysisofthewaterftprintandrisksassociatedwithcurrentandprojec
43、tedfutureglobalhydrogenproduction.TheanalysisisbasedonIRENAzs1.5Scenario,whichprojectssubstantialgrowthinhydrogenproductionby2050.Today,about2.2billionm3offreshwateriswithdrawnforglobalhydrogenproductioneveryyear;thisaccountsfor0.6%oftheenergysectorstotalfreshwaterwithdrawal.AsillustratedinFigureS2z
44、greyhydrogenproductionaccountsforabout59%oftheglobalfreshwaterwithdrawalforhydrogenproduction,brownhydrogen40%,andtherestisfromgreenandbluehydrogen.Freshwaterwithdrawalsforglobalhydrogenproductioncouldmorethantripleby2040andincreasesix-foldby2050zcomparedwithtoday.Drivenbythesignificantexpansionofgl
45、obaldemandforhydrogen,thetotalfreshwaterwithdrawalrequiredbyglobalhydrogenproductionisprojectedtobeabout7.3billionm3by2040and12.1billionm3by2050zfactoringintechnologyadvancements.Hydrogenproductionsshareoftotalfreshwaterwithdrawnfortheenergysectorcouldrisefrom0.6%todayto2.4%by2040.figureS2Currentand
46、projectedfreshwaterwithdrawalforglobalhydrogenproduction,bypathway14(E uoq)QMep M 拈MqsalJ-BnUun-basedandseawater-cledhydrogenproduction(e.intheGCCcountries)isexduded.BlueH2includesSMR-CCUS,ATR-CCUSandcoal-CCUS,withtheshareOfATR-CCUSassumedtograduallyineaseto75%by2050.COoIinginblueH2productionindudes
47、theclingdemandduetoCCUSsystems.GreenH2indudesbothalkalineandPEMelectrolysiswiththeshareofPEMelectrolysisassumedtograduallyineaseto75%by2050.Moderategradualincreasesinelectrolysisefficiency(7.5percentagepointsforalkalineelectrolysisand4.5percentagepointsforPEM-electrolysisoverthemingthreedecades)areassumed.Forcalculationpurposes,theclingandproductionsharesofblueH2inCase2fromLewisetal.(2022)areapplied.ATR=autothermalreforming;CCUS=carboncapture,utilisationands
