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1、pzzouBmkoicupPaz_0号MMOtoMP2023InternationalBankforReconstructionandDevelopment/TheWorldBank1818HStreetNW,Washington,DC20433Telephone:;Internet:www.worldbankreserved.ThisworkisaproductofthestaffoftheWorldBankwithexternalcontributions.Thefindings,interpretations,andconclusionsexpressedinthisworkdonotn
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5、gthebar:TowardanEquitableandInclusiveFiscalPolicy.WashingtonD.C.:WorldBank.License:CreativeCommonsAttributionCCBY3.0IGOTranslations-Ifyoucreateatranslationofthiswork,pleaseaddthefollowingdisclaimeralongwiththeattribution:ThistranslationwasnotcreatedbytheWorldBankandshouldnotbeconsideredanofficialWor
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7、theauthororauthorsoftheadaptationandarenotendorsedbytheWorldBank.Third-partycontentTheWorldBankdoesnotnecessarilyowneachcomponentofthecontentcontainedwithinthework.TheWorldBankthereforedoesnotwarrantthattheuseofanythird-partyownedindividualcomponentorpartcontainedintheworkwillnotinfringeontherightso
8、fthosethirdparties.Theriskofclaimsresultingfromsuchinfringementrestssolelywithyou.Ifyouwishtore-useacomponentofthework,itisyourresponsibilitytodeterminewhetherpermissionisneededforthatre-useandtoobtainpermissionfromthecopyrightowner.Examplesofcomponentscaninclude,butarenotlimitedto,tables,figures,or
9、images.AllqueriesonrightsandlicensesshouldbeaddressedtoWorldBankPublications,TheWorldBankGroup,1818HStreetNW,Washington,DC20433zUSA;e-mail:pubrightsworldbank.org.1.ayout:PaulBloxhamDesign.Coverillustrations:AdaptedfromShutterstock/TAP14andShutterstock/BatshevsiiiContentsAbbreviationsvAcknowledgments
10、viExecutiveSummaryvii1. Introduction1Countrycontext2Roleoffiscalpolicy52. CommitmenttoEquityToolfortheLaoFiscalSystem7CommitmenttoEquitymethodology8ApplicationtotheLaofiscalsystem103. DistributionalImpactoftheLaoFiscalSystem13Fiscalsystem14Fiscalinterventions16Cross-countrycomparison214. Distributio
11、nalImpactofPolicyReforms235. Conclusions276. Annexes29Annex 1: Datasourceandmethodology30Annex 2: Policyreforms2019-202240References41FiguresFigure1.1. GDPgrowth2010-20222Figure1.2. Publicdebt2016-20222Figure1.3. Exchangerate3Figure1.4. Inflation3Figure1.5. Povertyheadcountrate1997-20184Figure1.6. E
12、mploymentcomposition20184Figure1.7. InequalityacrossEastAsiaandPacificcountries4Figure1.8. Fiscalrevenueandexpenditure2010-20224Figure1.9. Publicspendingonhealthandeducation2016-20225Figure2.1. CEQframework8Figure2.2. Concentrationsharesofprogressive,neutral,andregressiveinterventions9Figure2.3. Inc
13、idenceofprogressive,neutral,andregressiveinterventions10Figure3.1. Concentrationoffiscalsystems14Figure3.2. Concentrationsharesoffiscalsystem14Figure3.3. Incidenceoffiscalsystem15Figure3.4. Impactoffiscalinterventionsoninequality(Giniindex)15Figure3.5. Impactoffiscalinterventionsonpoverty(headcountr
14、ate)15Figure3.6. Concentrationofdirectinterventions16Figure3.7. Concentrationsharesofdirectinterventions16Figure3.8. Incidenceofdirectinterventions16Figure3.9. Incidenceofpersonalincometax16Figure3.10. Shareofinformalitybydecile17Figure3.11. Concentrationofindirecttaxpayment18Figure3.12. Concentrati
15、onsharesofindirecttaxpayment18Figure3.13. IncidenceofVAT18Figure3.14. Incidenceofexcisetax18Figure3.15. Consumptionbasketandshareofinformalconsumptionbydecile19Figure3.16. Concentrationofin-kindbenefits20Figure3.17. Concentrationsharesofin-kindbenefits20Figure3.18. Incidenceofin-kindbenefits20Figure
16、3.19. Schoolenrollment20Figure3.20. Utilizationofhealthcareservices20Figure3.21. Netcashimpactoninequalitybycountry21Figure3.22. Netfiscalimpactoninequalitybycountry21Figure3.23. Netcashimpactonpovertybycountry22TablesTable2.1.FiscalrevenueandspendingintheCEQanalysis12Table4.1.Fiscalanddistributiona
17、limpactsofpolicyreforms26Table6.1. Directtaxesimposedonhouseholds32Table6.2. Socialsecuritycontributionschedules33Table6.3. Socialsecuritytransfers201833Table6.4. ProxyMeansTestmethodology34Table6.5. Directtaxesimposedonhouseholds37Table6.6. CEQincomeconcept39Table6.7. ExcisetaxforitemsintheCEQframe
18、work2018and202240Table6.8. Personalincometaxbracketsandrates2018and202040AbbreviationsCCTConditionalCashTransferCEQCommitmenttoEquityCITCorporateIncomeTaxGDPGrossDomesticProductIOTInput-OutputTabIeLECSLaoExpenditureandConsumptionSurveyLMICLower-Middle-IncomeCountriesLSSOLaosSocialSecurityOrganizatio
19、nNSSFNationalSocialSecurityFundPITPersonalIncomeTaxPMTProxyMeansTestSASSStateAuthorityforSocialSecurityVATValueAddedTaxAcknowledgmentsThisreportwaspreparedbyTanidaArayavechkit(SeniorEconomist)andNataliaGarcia-PenaBersh(Consultant).TheteamisalsogratefultotheGovernmentoftheLaoPDR,especiallytheMinistry
20、ofPlanningandInvestmentandtheMinistryofFinancefordataaccess.TheworkwascarriedoutundertheoverallguidanceofHassanZaman(RegionalDirector),MariamSherman(CountryDirector),AlexanderKremer(CountryManager),andRinkuMurgai(PracticeManager).TheteamwouldliketothankpeerreviewersMatthewWai-Poi(LeadEconomist)andPe
21、droMartins(SeniorEconomist)fortheirvaluablecommentsandguidance.TheteamwouldalsoliketothankKeomanivonePhimmahasay(Economist),TaraBeteille(SeniorEconomist,ProgramLeader),EmikoMasaki(SeniorEconomist),VietAnhNguyen(SeniorPublicSectorSpecialist),andJohannesWolff(Consultant)fortheirvaluableinputsandinsigh
22、ts,andSouthidaSalaphan(ProgramAssistant)foradministrativeassistance.ExecutiveSummaryTheLaoPeopIezSDemocraticRepublic(Laos)isfacingeconomicchallenges.Thecountryisexperiencingagrowthslowdownwithhighlevelsofpublicdebt.Growingcurrentexpenditureanddebtserviceobligationsamidsluggishtaxrevenueledtoawidenin
23、gfiscaldeficitintheearly2010szwhichremainedhighintothe2020sdespitefiscalconsolidationefforts.COVID-19anddeterioratingmacroeconomicconditionshavedisruptedhumancapitalinvestmentandareexpectedtohaveworsenedtheincidenceofpovertyandinequality.Fiscalpolicycanbeaninstrumenttoaddressthesechallenges,butitsro
24、lehasbeenconstrainedbyaprecariousfiscalposition.Policycanbecraftedtostabilizetheeconomy,protectvulnerablepeoplefromeconomicshocks,fostereconomicgrowth,andsupportpovertyandinequalityreduction.InLaos,measurestohelphouseholdscopewithCOVID-19andhighinflationhavebeenconstrainedbylimitedfiscalspace.Thecou
25、ntrysspendingonsocialprotectionandreliefmeasureswaslowerthanthelower-middle-incomecountriesandEastAsiaandPacificaverages.AreductionintheVATratefrom10percentto7percentwasimplementedaspartofpost-COVID-19economicrecoveryefforts.Thisunderminedrevenuecollectionandthecountr/sabilitytosupportsustainedsocia
26、lspending.Healthandeducationspendinghasdeclinedinrealterms.ThisreportanalyzesthedistributiveeffectsoftheLaofiscalsystemandpotentialreformstoaddresscurrenteconomicchallenges.TheanalysisadoptstheCommitmenttoEquity(CEQ)methodologytoassessthedistributionalimpactoftheLaofiscalsystemonhouseholdwelfare.The
27、methodologydisaggregatesincometoincludeorexcludefiscalinterventionstoanalyzetheimpactofthefiscalsystemandeachinterventiononpovertyandinequality.Fiscalinterventionscanbeclassifiedintothreecategoriesaccordingtohowtheyareimposedonhouseholds:directinterventions(directtaxes,socialsecuritycontributions,an
28、dcashtransfers),indirectinterventions(indirecttaxesandsubsidies),andin-kindinterventions(publichealthandeducation).Theframeworkassesseshowprogressiveafiscalsystemandeachfiscalinterventionareandmeasurestheirimpactsonpovertyandinequality.TheLaofiscalsystemisprogressive,implyingthatincomeaftertaxesandt
29、ransfersismoreequallydistributedthanincomebeforetaxesandtransfers.Better-offhouseholdsbearalargertaxburdenthanpoorerhouseholds.Thisisowingtotheprogressivepersonalincometaxscheduleandhigherratesofinformalemploymentamongpoorerhouseholds.Moreover,poorerhouseholdstendtoconsumegoodsandservicesfromtheinfo
30、rmalsectorthatarenotsubjecttoVATaswellasthosethatareexemptedfromVAT.VATpaymentrepresents5.9percentofincomebeforetaxesandtransfersfortherichest10percentofhouseholds,withthesharesteadilydecliningtoonly0.8percentamongthepoorest10percentofhouseholds.Similarly,excisetaxpaymentisprogressive,representing7.
31、7percentofincomebeforetaxesandtransfersfortherichest10percentofhouseholds,comparedtoonly1.1percentamongthepoorest10percentofhouseholds.Amongtheexcisetaxes,thoseleviedonrecreation,vehicles,andluxurygoodsaremoreprogressivethanfuelexciseandhealthtaxes(alcoholicbeverages,cigarettes,andsugar-sweetenedbev
32、erages).However,theimpactsoftheLaofiscalsystemonhouseholdsarelimitedduetoweakrevenuecollectionthatresultsinlowsocialspending.Despitebeingprogressive,theLaofiscalsystemhaslimitedredistributiveandpovertyreductionimpacts.Lowtaxrevenueconstrainssocialspendingonhealth,education,andsocialprotection.Thelat
33、terismoreprogressivethanotherinterventionsanddirectlybenefitspoorhouseholds.TaxrevenueandsocialspendinglevelsoftheLaofiscalsystemarelowbyregionalandincomestandards,andrecentreformshaveexacerbatedthesechallenges.Fiscalsysteminterventionsmoderatelyreduceinequalitybuttheimpactonpovertyreductionisminima
34、l.LaofiscalsysteminterventionsreducetheGiniindex,thecommonlyusedmeasureofinequality,by4.3pointsfrom40.9pointsto36.6points.However,thesmallpaymentamountandlowcoverageofsocialprotectiontransferslimitstheimpactofthefiscalsystemonpoverty,asmeasuredincashtermsorhowmuchcashisavailableinhouseholdsforspendi
35、ng.TheLaofiscalsystemunderperformswhencomparedtothesystemsofothercountriesinthesameincomegroup.Laosranks46thoutof60countriesand16thoutof20lower-middle-incomecountrieswithavailabledataintermsoftheinequality-reducingeffectofthefiscalsystem,withmorethanhalfoftheimpactdrivenbyin-kindhealthandeducationbe
36、nefits.Itspovertyreductionperformanceranks15thoutof18lower-middle-incomecountrieswithavailabledata.Againstthebackdropofcurrenteconomicchallenges,thereisaneedforthegovernmenttocreatefiscalspaceformoresocialspending.COVID-19followedbyrisinginflationhasstrainedhouseholdbudgets,withmostlow-incomehouseho
37、ldsreducingfoodconsumptionandotherspendingtomakeuptheshortfall.Thisisexpectedtoexacerbatepovertyandinequalityintheshorttermandunderminegrowthanddevelopmentprogressinthelongterm.Supportandreliefmeasureshavebeenconstrainedbylimitedfiscalspace.Householdsupportcanbeprovidedmorecost-effectivelythroughhig
38、hersocialspendingratherthanlowertaxes.Tospendmoreonthesocialsectors,thegovernmentneedstoraisemorerevenue.Taxingtocreatemorefiscalspace: RestoringtheVATrateto10percentwouldhaveanimmediateandsignificantimpactonincreasingrevenueandreducinginequality,whilethetaxburdenplacedonlow-incomehouseholdswouldbel
39、ow. Raisinghealthtaxes(excisetaxesonbeer,cigarettes,andsugar-sweetenedbeverages)wouldgeneraterevenue.Increasingtheexcisetaxrateonbeerwouldalsohelpreduceinequality.However,consumers,especiallythosefromlow-incomehouseholds,tendtoreduceconsumptionoftheseproductsinresponsetohigherprices.Withprice-respon
40、sivebehavioraladjustments,theimmediaterevenuecollectioncouldbelower,butinequalitycanfurtherbereducedandIargerfiscalgainscanbeachievedthroughreducinglong-termhealthcarespending.Spendingontargetedtransfersandhumancapital: Increasingtargetedcashtransfersisacost-effectiveinterventiontoreducepovertyandin
41、equality.TheyareproventobeeffectiveinprotectingvulnerablehouseholdsandpreventinghumancapitalerosionfromCOVID-19andeconomicinstabilityinLaos. IncreasinghumancapitalspendingwouldhelpreduceinequalityandpreventafurthererosionofhumancapitalbroughtaboutbyCOVID-19andeconomicinstability,especiallyamonglow-i
42、ncomehouseholds.Combiningtaxingandspendingmeasureswouldcreateawin-winsolution,allowingthegovernmenttoprotectthevulnerable,reducepovertyandinequality,whilepreservingsomeofthefiscalgains.CountrycontextAfteradecadeofstronggrowth,theLaoeconomyisfacingeconomicchallengesfromaslowdowningrowth,risingdebtbur
43、den,andhighinflation.Havingbeenoneofthefastest-growingeconomiesinEastAsiaandthePacificbeforeCOVID-19,Laosisexperiencingaslowdowningrowth.Whiletheeconomygrewatanaverageof7.0percentperyearbetween2003and2019zsignsofdeceleration叩Pearedin2013.GrossDomesticProduct(GDP)growthsteadilydeclinedfrom8.0percenti
44、n2013to5.5percentin2019duetothelimitationsofaresource-driveneconomicmodelandaccumulatedstructuralimbalances.GDPgrowthdroppedto0.5percentin2020owingtoCOVID-19.Therecoveryhasbeengradual,withgrowthinchingupto2.5percentin2021and2.7percentin2022andprojectedtorisetoaround3percentto4percentinthemediumtermz
45、belowpre-pandemiclevels(Figure1.1).Figure 1.2: Public debt 2016-2022S 9 卜 86 OTZITlIlZZZFollowingeconomicgrowththatwasdrivenbycapital-intensiveindustriesandinfrastructureprojects,largelyfinancedthroughforeigndebt,publicdebthasreachedcriticallevels.Overthepasttwodecades,Laoswitnessedunprecedentedleve
46、lsofcapitalinvestmentinthenaturalresourcesectorandinlargeinfrastructureprojects,predominantlyinhydropowergeneration,transmissionlinesandrecentlyarailway.Aconsiderableproportionofcapitalstockhasbeencreatedunderpublic-privatepartnershipsandfinancedthroughtheaccumulationofforeigndebt(WorldBank2021b).To
47、talpublicandpubliclyguaranteeddebthasincreasedconsiderablyto$14billionin2Q22,orequivalentto112percentofGDP.Thefigurerisestoover120percentofGDPifaswapanddomesticexpenditurearrearsareincluded(Figure1.2). ArrearS+swap Domestic External(publiclyguaranteed) External(public)Sources:WorldBankforGDP.MinistryofFinanceandWorldBankstaffcalculationsforpublicandpubliclyguaranteed
