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1、1. Chapter1Introduction2. 1.anguageisasystemofavocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication,arbitrary3. Thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughisadstudy,diachronic4. 1.referstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedallthemembersofaspeechcommunity.Langue5. Thedesirefeaturesoflanguagearearbitrariness,duality,c
2、reativity,andd.displacement6. Thefunctionsoflanguageincludesinformative,interpersonal,performative,emotive,phatic,recreationalandm.metalingual7. Themainbranchesoflinguisticsshouldincludephonetics,phonology,morphology,syntax,sandpragmatics,semantics8. Thebranchesofmacrolinguisticshavepsycholinguistic
3、,sociolinguistics,alinguistics,andcomputationallinguistics,anthropological9. TheparadigmaticrelationisalsoknownastheVERTICALrelation,orcrelation.CHOICE1. TheSyntagmaticrelationisnowadaysalsoreferredtoastheHORIZONTALrelationorcrelation.CHAIN2. 1.inguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthe.scientificstudyoflang
4、uage3. Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalled.generallinguistics.4. Thestudyofusedinlinguisticcommunicationledtotheestablishmentofphonetics.Sounds5. Thestudyofisknownassemantics,meaning6. Psycholinguisticsrelatesthestudyoflanguageto.psychology7. Thestudyofisgenerallyknownasappliedlinguistics,applic
5、ations8. Ifalinguisticstudyaimstodescribeandanalyzethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobe.descriptive9. Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftimeinisasynchronicstudythedescriptionofalanguageasitthroughtimeisadiachronic,history;changes10. Fromthepointofviewoflinguisticevolution,speechistowriting,
6、prior11. =referstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthememberofaspeechcommunity,andreferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.langue;parole12. 1.inguisticisdescriptivewhiletraditionalgrammaris.prescriptive13. Modernlinguisticregardsthelanguageasprimary,notthewritten,spoken14. Manyoftherulesoftrad
7、itionalgrammarapplyonlytothelanguage,written15. Whenthestudyofmeaningis,notinisolation,butinthecontextoflanguageuse,itbecomesanotherbranchoflinguisticstudycalledpragmatics,conducted16. Prescriptiveanddescriptiverepresenttwodifferentoflinguisticstudy.types21. Chomskydefines“competencef,astheidealuser
8、,skofthe22. rulesofhislanguage.23. 1.anguereferstothealinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunitywhiletheparoleistheconcreteuseoftheconventionsandapplicationoftherules.24. Disoneofthedesignfeaturesofhumanlanguagewhichrefersto25. thephenomenonthatlanguageconsistsoftwolevels:alowerlevelofm
9、eaninglessindividualsoundsandahigherlevelofmeaningfulunits.26. 1.anguageisasystemofavocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.27. Thedisciplinethatstudiestherulesgoverningtheformationofwordsintopermissiblesentencesinlanguagesiscalleds.28. Humancapacityforlanguagehasagbasis,butthedetailsoflanguagehavetob
10、etaughtandlearned.29. Preferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.30. Findingsinlinguisticstudiescanoftenbeappliedtothesettlementofsomepracticalproblems.Thestudyofsuchapplicationsisgenerallyknownasalinguistics.31. 1.anguageispinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers
11、.Inotherwords,theycanproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentenceswhichtheyhaveneverheardbefore.32. 1.inguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthesstudyoflanguage.33. knowledge22.abstract23.Duality24.arbitrary34. syntax26.genetic27.Parole28.applied29.productive30. scientific(orsystematic)Chapter2Speec
12、hsounds1. Ofthethreebranchesofphonetics,thelongestestablished,anduntilrecentlythemosthighlydeveloped,isaphonetics,articulatory2. Thefoursoundsp,/b/,/m/and/w/haveonefeatureincommon,i.e.,theyareallb.bilabial3. InEnglishthereareanumberofdfwhichareproducedbymovingfromonevowelpositiontoanotherthroughinte
13、rveningpositions,diphthongs4. Thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheaofthatphoneme,allophones5. Themostelementalgrammaticalunitsinalanguagearem.morphemes6. Soundchangeasaresultofsoundmovement,knownasm,involvesareversalinpositionoftwoadjoiningsoundsegme
14、nts.metathesis7. Phoneticsisthestudyofsoundsanditcanbedividedintothreemainareas,whichareaphonetics,acousticphoneticsandauditoryphonetics.10. ThepresentsystemoftheIPA(InternationalphoneticAssociation)wasdevelopedinthe1920sbytheBritishphoneticianDanielJ,whoputforwardcardinalvowels,whichareasetofvowelq
15、ualitiesarbitrarilydefined,fixedandunchanging.Jones11. Theformationofnewpronunciationincludesfactorsasloss,addition,metathesisanda.assimilation12. Phonemictranscriptionsareplacedbetweenslantlineswhilephonetictranscriptionsareplacedbetweensbrackets,squarebrackets.13. Thereareusuallytwotermsofnumber:S
16、ingularandP.Plural14. Pisabranchoflinguisticsthatstudieshowspeechsoundsareproducedandclassified.phonetics1. Phoneticsisdefinedasthestudyoftheoflanguage;ifisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworldslanguage,phonicmedium2. Thethreebranchesofphoneticsare,auditoryphoneticsandacousticphoneticsrespect
17、ively,labeledarticulationphonetics3. Englishconsonantscanbeclassifiedintwoways:oneisintermsofandtheotherisintermsof.mannerofarticulation;placeofarticulation4. Bothphonologyandphoneticsareconcernedwiththesameaspectoflanguage.thespeechsounds5. Thedifferentthroeswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphon
18、eticsenvironmentsarecalledtheofthatphoneme,allophones6. Theassimilationrulesassimilatesonesoundtoanotherby“copying”afeatureofa;thusmakingthetwophonessimilar,sequentialphoneme7. Theassimilationrulealsoaccountsfortheofthealvedarnasalinsomesoundcombinations,varyingpronunciation8. Thedeletionruletellsus
19、whenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitis.orthographicallyrepresented9. 1.anguageisfirstthroughitssounds.perceived10. TheletterPintermsofplaceofarticulationintermsofmannerofarticulationis.bilabial;stops1. .,notphoneticidentityisthecriterionwithwhichweoperatethephonologicalanalysisoflanguagephoneticsimilar
20、ity.12. Thegreatestsourceofmodificationoftheairstreamisfoundinginthe.oralcavity13. Correspondingtothedistinctionoflongandshortvowelsisthedistinctionofandvowels.tense;lax14. Aphonemeisfurtheranalyzablebecauseitconsistsofasetof.simultaneousdistinctivefeatures15. Similaralterationofstressalsooccursbetw
21、eenaandaphraseconsistingofthesameelements,compoundnoun1. Ofallthespeechorgans,thetisthemostflexible,andisresponsibleforvarietiesofarticulationthananyother,tongue2. Englishconsonantscanbeclassifiedintermsofmannerofarticulationorintermsofpofarticulation.place3. Whentheobstructioncreatedbythespeechorga
22、nsistotalorcomplete,thespeechsoundproducedwiththeobstructionaudiblyreleasedandtheairpassingoutagainiscalledas.stop4. Sfeaturesarethephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegments.Theyincludestress,tone,intonation,etc.Suprasegmental5. Therulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage
23、arecalledsrules,sequential6. Thetranscriptionofspeechsoundswithletter-symbolsonlyiscalledbroadtranscriptionwhilethetranscriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacriticsiscalledntranscription,narrow7. Whenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivel
24、yknownasi.intonation8. Pisadisciplinewhichstudiesthesystemofsoundsofaparticularlanguageandhowsoundsarecombinedintomeaningfulunitstoeffectlinguisticcommunication.Phonology9. Tarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcordsandwhichcandistinguishmeaningjustlikephonemes.To
25、ne10. Dependingonthecontextinwhichstressisconsidered,therearetwokindsofstress:wordstressandsstress,sentence1. Areferstoastrongpuffofairstreamintheproductionofspeechsounds.Aspiration2. Aphoneticsdescribesthewayourspeechorgansworktoproducethespeechsoundsandhowtheydiffer.Articulatory3. Thefoursoundsp,b
26、,mandwhaveonefeatureincommon,i.e.theyareallbsounds,bilabial4. Ofallthespeechorgans,thetisthemostflexible,andisresponsibleforvarietiesofarticulationthananyother,tongue5. Englishconsonantscanbeclassifiedintermsofmannerofarticulationorintermsofpofarticulation.place6. Whentheobstructioncreatedbythespeec
27、horgansistotalorcomplete,thespeechsoundproducedwiththeobstructionaudiblyreleasedandtheairpassingoutagainiscalledas.stop7. Sfeaturesarethephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegments.Theyincludestress,tone,intonation,etc.Suprasegmental8. Therulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlan
28、guagearecalledsrules.sequential9. Thetranscriptionofspeechsoundswithletter-symbolsonlyiscalledbroadtranscriptionwhilethetranscriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacriticsiscalledntranscription,narrow10. Whenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecolle
29、ctivelyknownasi.intonation11. Pisadisciplinewhichstudiesthesystemofsoundsofaparticularlanguageandhowsoundsarecombinedintomeaningfulunitstoeffectlinguisticcommunication.Phonology12. Thearticulatoryapparatusofahumanbeingarecontainedinthreeimportantcavities:thepharyngealcavity,theocavityandthenasalcavi
30、ty.oral13. Tarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcordsandwhichcandistinguishmeaningjustlikephonemes.Tone14. Dependingonthecontextinwhichstressisconsidered,therearetwokindsofstress:wordstressandSstress,sentenceChapter3Morphology1. Misabranchofgrammarwhichstudiesthe
31、internalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Morphology2. Noun,verb,adj.andadv.aremlexicalcategories,major3. Anaisashortenedformofawordorphrasewhichrepresentsthecompleteform,abbreviation4. Morphologyisdividedintotwosub-branches:imorphologyandlexicalorderivationalmorphology,inflectional5.
32、 Accordingtoitspositioninthenewword,affixesaredividedintotwokindsandsuffixes,prefixes6. ThemostcommonmodelaccentofTEFL(TeachingofEnglishasaForeignLanguage)isreferredtoasa.acronym7. AWisthecommonfactorunderlyingasetofforms,aunitofvocabulary,alexicalitem,oralexeme.31.articulatoryphoneticsWORD8. Mstudi
33、estheinternalstructureofwords,andtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.MORPHOLOGY9. Apartfromcompoundandderivation,newwordsandexpressionsarecreatedbymeansofinvention,blending,abbreviation,acronym,back-formation,analogicalcreationandb.borrowing10. Wisacomparablyabstractunittobesetuptoshowhowwordsworkinthegra
34、mmarofalanguage.Word11. Badvocatedtreatingsentenceas,themaximumfreeform”andword,theminimumfreeform.(BloomField)12. Intermsofthemeaningexpressedbywords,theycanbeclassifiedintoGrannaticalwordsandLwords,lexical13. Englishvocabularyhastwomainsources:Anglo-SaxonandL.Latin.14. Asisanymorphemeorcombination
35、ofmorphemestowhichaninflectionalaffixcanbeadded.stem15. Affixislimitedinnumberinalanguage,andisgenerallyclassifiedintothreesubtypes,namely,prefix,suffix,andi.infix16. Concerningvocabularysemanticchange,therearebroadening,narrowing,meaningshift,classshift,folkeandorthographicchange,etymology17. Compo
36、undscanbefurtherdividedintotwokinds:theendocentriccompoundandtheecompound.exocentric.18. Thereareseveraltypesofprocesseswithregardtoborrowing.TheyareLoanwords,Loanblend,Loanshiftandloant.translation1. ChapterThree2. 1.inguistsdefinethewordasthesmallestfoundinlanguage,freeform3. Morphemeisthethatcarr
37、iesinformationaboutmeaningorfunction,smallestunitoflanguage4. Therootconstitutestheofthewordandcarriesthemajorcomponentsofitsmeaning.core5. Morphemeareusually:thereisnonaturalconnectionbetweentheirsoundandmeaning.arbitrary6. Whenareconjoinedtoothermorpheme(orwords),anewwordsarederived,orformed,deriv
38、ationalmorphemes7. Derivationisanthatformawordwithmeaningandcategorydistinctfromthatofitsbases,affiationalprocess8. Unlikephonemesandsyllableswhicharetheelementsofsound,words.carrymeaning9. arethefoundationbuildingblocksofalanguage,words10. 1.inguistsusethetermmorphologytorefertothepartofthegrammert
39、hatisconcernedwithand.wordformation;wordstructure11. Thecontentwordsoflanguage,suchasrrandadverbs,aresometimescalledopenclasswords.nouns;verbs;adjectives12. Affixesbelongtoalexicalcategoryandarealwaysboundmorpheme,donot13. Boundmorphemeswhichareforthemostpartpurelygrammaticalmakersandsignifysuchconc
40、eptsastense,number;casearecalled.inflectionalmorphemes14. fandfreemorphemescombinearethemajorwaystoproducenewwords,derivation;compounds15. Thewayswordareformedarecalled.morphologicalrules16. Whentwowordsareinthesame,thecompoundwillbeinthiscategory.grammaticalcategory1. Misthesmallestmeaningfulunitof
41、language.Morpheme2. Theaffixishinthewordboyishconveysagmeaning,grammatical3. Bmorphemesarethosethatcannotbeusedindependentlybuthavetobecombinedwithothermorphemesfeitherfreeorbound,toformaword.Bound4. Affixesareoftwotypes:inflectionalaffixesanddaffixes,derivative5. Daffixesareaddedtoanexistingformtoc
42、reatewords.Derivative6. Asisaddedtotheendofstemstomodifythemeaningoftheoriginalwordanditmaycasechangeitspartofspeech,suffix7. Cisthecombinationoftwoorsometimesmorethantwowordstocreatenewwords.Compounding8. Therulesthatgovernwhichaffixcanbeaddedtowhattypeofstemtoformanewwordarecalledmrules,morphologi
43、cal9. Intermsofmorphemicanalysis,dcanbeviewedastheadditionofaffixestostemstoformnewwords,derivation10. Ascanbeaboundroot,afreemorpheme,oraderivedformitselftowhichaderivationalaffixcanbeadded,stem1.Morpheme2.grammatical3.Bound4.derivative5.Derivative6.suffix7.Compounding8.morphological9.derivation10.
44、stemChapter4Syntax1. Mostembeddedclausesrequireanintroductorywordcalledassuchasthat,if,andbefore.Subordinator2. Sisasubfieldoflinguisticsthatstudiesthesentencestructureoflanguage.Syntax3. Asisastructurallyindependentunitthatusuallycomprisesanumberofwordstoformacompletestatement,questionorcommand.Sen
45、tence4. Thestudiesoftherulesgoverningthewaywordsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguageorthestudyoftheformationofsentencesiscalleds.syntax5. Thereareonlytwooperationsinthecomputationalsystemnow:MergerandM.Move6. InthebookSyntacticstructurespublishedin1957,Chomskyproposedalinguisticmodelconsistingofthr
46、eecomponents:PhraseStructureComponent,TComponentandMorpho-phonemicComponentTransformational7. Thebasecomponentsitselfisdividedintotwosub-components:categoriesandI.lexicon8. Endocentricconstructionsmaybefurtherdividedintotwosubtypes:SUBORDINATEandcconstructions.COORDINATE9. Hallidayarguesthatthereare
47、threegeneralfunctionsoflanguage:ideational,interpersonalandt.textual1. Todetermineawordscategory,threecriteriaareusuallyemployed:,.meaning,inflection,distribution2. TheXPruleis.XP(specifier)X(complement)3. Syntaxisabranchoflinguisticsthatstudiestherulesthat.governtheformationofsentences4. TheSruleis
48、JNPVP5. Thefirst,formedbytheinaccordancewiththesubcategorizationproperties,iscalleddeepstructure.XPrule,head,s6. questionsbeginwithawh-wordarecalled.questions7. Correspondingtothefinalsyntacticformofsentencewhichresultsfromappropriatetransformations,iscalled.sufficestructure7.1 ftheheadisaverb,thenthespecifieris.qualifier9 .Wordlevelcategoriesaredividedintotwokinds:and.majorlexicalcategories,minorlexicalcategories10 .Syntacticunitsthatar
